ENDOCRINO SELF

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ENDOCRINO SELF - The Embodiment of Inner Speech: Endocrinological Foundations of Self-Reference and Identity

What We Do

This project investigates how hormonal processes—particularly those involving oxytocin and cortisol—are related to our self-perception. We are particularly interested in the interaction between hormonal processes and various forms of inner speech, as well as their intertwining with emotional experience, which represent important—though as yet insufficiently studied—aspects of self-perception. By focusing on hormonal processes as an aspect of embodiment, the project develops a new perspective on the embodied self. To this end, we combine philosophical theory-building, phenomenological analysis, and empirical research.

Inner speech is the silent, internal linguistic activity through which people structure their experiences and thoughts, plan or support actions, and articulate their self-understanding. While current research in cognitive science and philosophy now recognizes a wide range of mental processes as embodied—that is, supported—if not essentially shaped—by sensorimotor, interoceptive, and affective processes, this dimension of embodiment in inner speech has so far remained largely unexplored.

Endocrinological processes, in particular, represent a central yet largely overlooked aspect of embodied experience; they manifest themselves in specific ways across the interoceptive, affective, and cognitive dimensions of experience. Endocrinological markers such as oxytocin or cortisol play a central mediating role in the experience of environmental stressors and social integration. Thus, endocrinological processes may represent an important link between embodied environmental interactions and the formation of self-reference in inner speech.

The first subproject develops a concept of hormonally mediated embodiment of affective-cognitive self-reference based on classical and contemporary phenomenological approaches, with a particular focus on the role of inner speech in self-affirmation and self-criticism. Drawing on philosophical-phenomenological theory and findings from cognitive science, we explore and develop the hypothesis that hormonal processes are indirectly inscribed into experience through specific affective signatures and self-regulatory processes. Particular attention is paid to bodily-affective experience in its connection to self-invalidating inner speech in borderline personality disorder, which serves as a particularly paradigmatic example in this context.

In close conceptual alignment with the theoretical-conceptual subproject, the second subproject uses a combined questionnaire and diary study (EMA) involving 100 individuals with borderline symptoms to investigate, among other things, how self-critical internal dialogue in everyday life is related to hormonal stress markers, affect, and contextual factors (e.g., social closeness or rejection). Beyond the actual findings, the goal of the empirical study is to refine the conceptual framework in detail and thus arrive at a dynamic, interdisciplinary understanding of embodied self-relationships that opens up new perspectives on the role of hormonal processes in consciousness, thought, and psychopathology.

Recent empirical studies

Survey Study: “Inner Speech and Emotional Life”

Further information:

https://www.klinikum.uni-heidelberg.de/fileadmin/zpm/psychatrie/t_fuchs/Schmidt/Allgemeine_Einladung.pdf

Link to participate:

https://www.soscisurvey.de/ISER/

Workshops and Activities

September 24–26, 2026: International Conference “The Self in the Social World” (Heidelberg University Hospital)

September 2–5, 2026: 56th Annual Meeting of the “International Society of Psychoneuroendocrinology” (Erlangen, Germany)

June 3–6, 2026: 51st Annual Conference “Psychology and the Brain” (Heidelberg, Germany)

April 21, 2026: Workshop “Living Together in the Absurd: Making Sense When the World Doesn’t Make Sense” (Faculty of Modern and Medieval Languages and Linguistics, University of Cambridge)

April 15, 2026: Workshop “Healing Voices? Language in Psychopathology and Psychotherapy” (St. Catherine’s College, University of Oxford)

Dr. Philipp Schmidt-Boddy (Project Leader)

Field of expertise: Philosophy, Psychology

Main Research Interests:

Self and identity, emotions, emotion regulation, inner speech, philosophy of psychiatry and psychology, phenomenological psychopathology

Role and Focus in the Project: Project leader, focusing on Subproject I

Links to additional profiles:

https://www.klinikum.uni-heidelberg.de/personen/dr-philipp-schmidt-boddy-5494/

https://sites.google.com/view/philipp-schmidt-boddy

https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=s1nrc34AAAAJ&hl=en

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Philipp-Schmidt-Boddy?ev=hdr_xprf

https://uni-heidelberg.academia.edu/PhilippSchmidtBoddy

Dr. Ekaterina Schneider (Project Leader)

Field of expertise: Psychology

Main Research Interests:

Social Neuroendocrinology: Investigating the influence of social closeness, touch, and relationship experiences on stress regulation, affect, and health. The focus is on neuroendocrine markers of social processes, particularly oxytocin, cortisol, and sex hormones. Methodologically, the research combines laboratory-based biomarker analyses with real-life and experimental study designs.

Role and focus in the project: Project lead, focusing on Subproject II

Links to additional profiles:

Dr. phil. Ekaterina Schneider: Heidelberg University Hospital

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ekaterina-Schneider

‪Ekaterina Schneider‬ - ‪Google Scholar‬

Daniel Vespermann (Ph.D. candidate)

Field of expertise: Philosophy

Main Research Interests:

Systematic: Empirically informed philosophy of mind, phenomenological psychopathology, social philosophy, theory of action. Thematic: Affectivity (atmospheres, moods, affective attitudes), attention, memory, narrativity, subclinical psychiatric symptom patterns, spontaneous thoughts (“mind-wandering,” ruminations), collective perception of social relevance.

Role and focus in the project: Ph.D. student, focusing on Subproject 1

Links to additional profiles:

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Vespermann

Project-Related Publications by Project Members

Melichar, H. G. & Vespermann, D. (forthcoming). Transformative trust: Interpersonal autonomy, affectivity, and vulnerability in trust and its relevance for psychotherapy. In: Melichar, H. G., Schmidt-Boddy, P., Tewes, C., Fuchs, T. (eds.), Phenomenology of Emotion: Perspectives from Philosophy, Psychopathology, and Psychotherapy. Cambridge University Press.

Vespermann, D. (forthcoming). “Situating the Wandering Aesthetic Mind: The Role of Affective Atmospheres in Integrating Spontaneous Thoughts into Aesthetic Engagement.” In: Scarinzi, A. (ed.), *Situating the Aesthetic Mind*, ed. Alfonsina Scarinzi. Palgrave Macmillan.

Schneider, E., Cristóbal Hernández, Monika Eckstein, Robert Brock, Guy Bodemann, Ulrike Ehlert, Severin Läuchli, Beate Ditzen (2025c). Intranasal oxytocin and physical intimacy affect wound healing and stress response in romantic couples: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 83(2), 118–127. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2025.3705

Schneider, E., Raithel, C., Hopf, D., Scheele, D., Trotter, P. D., Franz, S., Aguilar-Raab, C., Ditzen, B., Eckstein, M. (2025b). Validation of the German Touch Experience and Attitude Questionnaire (TEAQ-G) and Its Associations with Social Relationships, Mental Health, and Endocrine Function. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 35228. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-20885-y

Hopf, D., Aguilar-Raab, C., Gödde, J. U., Schneider, E., Ditzen, B., & Eckstein, M. (2025a). Hormonal synchrony in older couples’ everyday life: The role of situational stressors and buffers. Hormones and Behavior, 172, 105743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2025.105743

Schmidt-Boddy, P. (2025). “Linguistic shrapnel”: Inner speech in borderline personality disorder and its relevance for self-familiarity: A philosophical review. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-025-10117-z

Sterna, A., Moskalewicz, M., Schmidt-Boddy, P., & Fuchs, T. (2025). The inflexible self and lived time. A phenomenological approach to personality disorders. In: K. Banicki & P. Zachar (Eds.): Novel Conceptual Approaches to Personality Disorder. Perspectives from Philosophy, Psychological Science, and Psychiatry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 130–146. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009445955.008

Petrolini, V. & Schmidt-Boddy, P. (2025). Camouflaging in autism and borderline personality disorder: Same or different? Theory & Psychology, 35(3), 315–335. https://doi.org/10.1177/09593543251316832

Vespermann, D. & Tirkkonen, S. K. (2025). Existential injustice in phenomenological psychopathology. Philosophical Psychology 38(1): 209–245.

Vespermann, D. (2024). Shifting the affective narrative: Atmospheres as solicitations to alter situational emotion scripts. Philosophical Psychology, 37(7): 1731-1761.

Schneider, E., Hopf, D., Aguilar-Raab, C., Scheele, D., Neubauer, A., Sailer, U., Hurlemann, R., Eckstein, M., Ditzen, B. (2023b). Affectionate touch and diurnal oxytocin levels: An ecological momentary assessment study. eLife, 12, e81241. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.81241

Schneider, E., Hopf, D., Eckstein, M.; Scheele, D., Aguilar-Raab, C., Herpertz, S.C., Grinevich, V., Ditzen, B. (2023a). Stress during the COVID-19 pandemic moderates pain perception and momentary oxytocin levels. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 12, 2333. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12062333

Schmidt, P. (2023). On experiential loneliness. Topoi, 42, 1093–1108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-023-09936-z

Hopf, D., Schneider, E., Aguilar-Raab, C., Scheele, D., Morr, M., Klein, T., Ditzen, B., Eckstein, M. (2022). Loneliness and diurnal cortisol levels during the COVID-19 lockdown: the roles of living situation, relationship status, and relationship quality. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-19224-2

Schmidt, P. (2022). The epistemological dimension of emotional feeling and other affective phenomena. Commentary on Jean Moritz Müller. Emotion Review, 14 (4), 264–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/17540739221125460

Reisenzein, R. & Schmidt, P. (2022). Emotional Feelings: Evaluative Perceptions or Position-Takings? Introduction to the Special Section. *Emotion Review*, 14 (4), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/17540739221127656

Schmidt, P. (2022). Affective instability and emotion dysregulation as a social impairment. Frontiers in Psychology, 13:666016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.666016

Schmidt, P. (2021). Crossing the lines: Manipulation, social impairment, and a challenging emotional life. Phenomenology and Mind, 21, 62–73. https://doi.org/10.17454/pam-2105

van Duppen, Z., Schmidt, P., & Lowyck, B. (2022). Borderline “we-space”? The phenomenology of the background of safety in borderline personality disorder. Psychopathology, 55 (3-4), 168–178, https://doi.org/10.1159/000520860

Schneider, E., Müller, L. E., Ditzen, B., Herpertz, S. C., Bertsch, K. (2021). Oxytocin and social anxiety: Interactions with sex hormones. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 128, 105224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105224

Schmidt, P. (2021). Nobody? Disturbed self-experience in Borderline Personality Disorder and four kinds of instability. In: C. Tewes & G. Stanghellini (Eds.): Time and Body: Phenomenological and Psychopathological Approaches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 206–229. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108776660

Schmidt, P. & Fuchs, T. (2021). The Unbearable Dispersal of Being: Narrativity and Personal Identity in Borderline Personality Disorder. *Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences*, 20, 321–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-020-09712-z

Pfeifer, A. C., Schroeder-Pfeifer, P., Schneider, E., Schick, M., Heinrichs, M., Bodenmann, G., Ehlert, U., Herpertz, S. C., Läuchli, S., Eckstein, M., Ditzen, B. (2020). Oxytocin and positive couple interaction affect the perception of wound pain in everyday life. Molecular Pain, 16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744806920918692

Schmidt, P. (2020). Disturbances of the Self in Borderline Personality Disorder: The Relationship Between Affect and the Experience of Identity. In: T. Fuchs & T. Breyer (Eds.): The Self and Self-Disturbances. Freiburg/Br.: Alber, 165–193. https://doi.org/10.5771/9783495823675

Phan, J. M., Schneider, E., Peres, J., Miocevic, O., Meyer, V., Shirtcliff, E. A. (2017). Social evaluative threat with verbal performance feedback alters neuroendocrine response to stress. Hormones and Behavior, 96, 104–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.09.007

Project Background

A central fundamental problem in the philosophy of mind is the question of the interaction between mind and body. Over the past few centuries, a wide variety of scenarios regarding this relationship have been explored, primarily on the basis of abstract ontological considerations (Wolff 1751; Levine 1983; Chalmers 1996; Papineau 1999; Descartes 2015). In the relevant empirical sciences as well—particularly psychology and, later, the cognitive sciences, but also theoretical biology—fundamental ontological assumptions have emerged either implicitly, e.g., in experimental designs, or explicitly as guiding hypotheses or interpretive frameworks. For several decades now, various disciplines—including linguistics, robotics, cognitive science, developmental psychology, and psychopathology—have advanced the thesis that cognitive abilities, and sometimes even consciousness, are “embodied” (“embodied”) (Lakoff & Johnson 1980; Varela et al. 1991; Thelen 2000; O’Regan & Noë 2001; Noë 2004; Thompson 2007; Fuchs 2009; Glenberg 2010). This thesis, which draws to varying degrees on phenomenological theory-building, asserts that a wide range of mental abilities—such as perception, memory, understanding others, or abstract thinking—are based on embodied processes that extend beyond the brain. In particular, according to this assumption, sensorimotor and affective processes—which are regulated throughout the entire body—constitute an indispensable foundation for the formation of supposedly purely mental processes (Colombetti 2014). To the extent that sensorimotor and affective processes are closely linked to interactions with the environment, the embodiment thesis often expands into the thesis of “situated,” “extended,” or “distributed cognition” or affectivity (Hutchins 1995; Clark & Chalmers 1998; Colombetti & Krueger 2015; Stephan & Walter 2020).

In the project “ENDOCRINO SELF – Embodiment of Inner Speech: Endocrinological Foundations of Self-Reference and Identity,” we are investigating a previously under-explored phenomenon of cognitive embodiment and an aspect of embodiment that has, at best, been addressed only implicitly. Although the concept of embodiment has gained significant momentum from cognitive linguistics, inner speech has only recently been explicitly recognized as embodied (Fernyhough & Borghi 2023; influential precursor: Vygotsky 1934/1987). Inner speech refers to the silent, internally performed linguistic activity through which individuals structure their thoughts, establish a sense of self, or prepare for future actions (Vicente & Martinez Manrique 2011; Alderson-Day & Fernyhough 2015; Langland-Hassan 2021). It serves as a central medium for self-affirmation, reflection, and identity formation, but can also—in the form of self-criticism and self-invalidation—undermine these processes and hinder the development and maintenance of a supportive self-image (Calvete et al. 2005; Perrone-Bertolotti et al. 2014; Ren et al. 2016). While previous studies on the embodiment of inner speech have examined the activation of sensorimotor areas in the brain during the execution of inner speech or the use of concepts (Loevenbruck et al. 2018; Borghi 2020; Dove 2022), the embedding of inner speech within active engagement with the environment has received little attention to date. Not least, however, a large body of work in embodiment theory on personal identity and self-narrativity points to the embedding of such forms of self-reference in the social and material environment (Heersmink 2020; von Maur 2021; Fabry 2023).

While previous research has focused on sensorimotor and interoceptive forms of embodiment, affectivity in particular represents a dynamic and meaning-bearing dimension of embodied interaction with the environment. While theories that emphasize the embodiment and situatedness of emotional experience (Colombetti & Krueger 2015; Krueger & Szanto 2016; Piredda & Candiotto 2019; Walter & Stephan 2023), which have highlighted the multifaceted interplay between emotional components and environmental influences, the underlying endocrinological processes have received little attention to date. Endocrinological processes, including the release of oxytocin and cortisol, in turn regulate the processing of environmental stressors and thus represent a crucial component of embodied interaction with the social environment (Heinrichs et al., 2003; Schneider et al. 2021; Uvnäs-Movberg et al. 2024). Insofar as inner speech makes a significant contribution to the processing of stressors through reflection on actions, self-criticism, and self-understanding, it stands to reason that these forms of conscious self-reference depend on endocrinological processes.

Forms of self-criticism in inner speech can range all the way to the development of subclinical and clinical symptoms. While this has previously been investigated—among other things—in relation to rumination, excessive worry, or auditory hallucinations (Nolen-Hoeksema 2000; Watkins 2008; Holmes et al. 2009; Fernyhough et al. 2019; Barber et al. 2021; Stephan-Otto et al. 2023), the role of self-invalidating inner speech in borderline personality disorder has so far only been explored. BPD is therefore of particular interest in the context of the situated embodiment of inner speech, as it is often associated with problems in emotion regulation, difficulties in social interaction, and challenges in narrative self-reference (Schmidt & Fuchs 2021; Schmidt 2020, 2021). While studies on the role of inner speech in BPD are largely lacking, numerous investigations exist on the complex influence of hormonal dynamics—particularly oxytocin—on the symptoms and course of BPD (di Giacomo et al. 2024). Oxytocin is primarily important for social bonding, but it also plays a central role in modulating physiological and psychological stress responses. Beyond this hormonal mediating role between environmental stressors and social integration, associations have been identified between oxytocin and emotional rejection resulting from self-criticism (Rockliff et al. 2011; Schneider et al. 2023). However, the extent to which environmental factors influence oxytocin release during self-invalidation has not yet been investigated. To examine the situational nature of self-invalidating inner speech, in this study we will investigate self-criticism not as a personality trait but as a fluctuating state using real-time measurements in everyday life (EMA).

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